Glacial erosion

Climate contrasts across drainage divides, such as orographic precipitation, are ubiquitous in mountain ranges, and as a result, mountain topography is often asymmetric. During glacial periods, these climate gradients can generate asymmetric glaciation, which may modify topographic asymmetry and drive divide migration during glacial-interglacial cycles. Here we quantify topographic asymmetry caused by asymmetric glaciation and its sensitivity to different climate scenarios. Using an analytical model of a steady-state glacial profile, we find that the degree of topographic asymmetry is primarily controlled by differences in the equilibrium line altitude across the divide. Our results show that glacial erosion can respond to the same climate asymmetry differently than fluvial erosion. When there are precipitation differences across the divide, glacial erosion produces greater topographic asymmetry than fluvial erosion, all else equal. These findings suggest that glaciations may promote drainage reorganization and landscape transience in intermittently glaciated mountain ranges.

Glacial-interglacial cycles have repeatedly perturbed climate and topography in many midlatitude mountain ranges during the Quaternary. Glacial erosion can move drainage divides and induce fluvial adjustments downstream, yet the time scale over which these adjustments occur remains unclear. We examined landscape evolution in the northwest-southeast–trending Qilian Shan, where the contrast in solar insolation between north- and south-facing slopes has generated larger glaciers on the northern range crest. Our analyses suggest that this asymmetric glaciation has caused southward migration of the main drainage divide, prompting river channels below the extents of ice on north-facing slopes to become oversteepened for their drainage area and channels on south-facing slopes to become analogously understeepened. These changes in steepness should accelerate or slow down postglacial fluvial incision, even in the regions where topography has not been directly modified by glacial erosion. Numerical modeling suggests these discrepancies persist for millions of years, much longer than the duration of recent glacial-interglacial cycles, implying a widespread and enduring influence of intermittent glaciations on landscape evolution in glaciated mountain ranges during the Quaternary.

Climate has been viewed as a primary control on the rates and patterns of glacial erosion, yet our understanding of the mechanisms by which climate influences glacial erosion is limited. We hypothesize that climate controls the patterns of glacial erosion by altering the basal thermal regime of glaciers. The basal thermal regime is a first-order control on the spatial patterns of glacial erosion. Polythermal glaciers contain both cold-based portions that protect bedrock from erosion and warm-based portions that actively erode bedrock. In this study, we model the impact of various climatic conditions on glacier basal thermal regimes and patterns of glacial erosion in mountainous regions. We couple a sliding-dependent glacial erosion model with the Parallel Ice Sheet Model (PISM) to simulate the evolution of the glacier basal thermal regime and glacial erosion in a synthetic landscape. We find that both basal thermal regimes and glacial erosion patterns are sensitive to climatic conditions, and glacial erosion patterns follow the patterns of the basal thermal regime. Cold temperature leads to limited glacial erosion at high elevations due to cold-based conditions. Increasing precipitation can overcome the impact of cold temperature on the basal thermal regime by accumulating thick ice and lowering the melting point of ice at the base of glaciers. High precipitation rates, therefore, tend to cause warm-based conditions at high elevations, resulting in intensive erosion near the peak of the mountain range. Previous studies often assessed the impact of climate on the spatial patterns of glacial erosion by integrating climatic conditions into the equilibrium line altitudes (ELAs) of glaciers, and glacial erosion is suggested to be maximal around the ELA. However, our results show that different climatic conditions produce glaciers with similar ELAs but different patterns of basal thermal regime and glacial erosion, suggesting that there might not be any direct correlation between ELAs and glacial erosion patterns.

Glacial erosion has shaped many mountain belts during the cold periods of the Late Cenozoic. The rate of glacial erosion is sensitive to the subglacial environment, including both the subglacial hydrology and the basal thermal regime. Geothermal heat from underlying bedrock is a major contributor to glacier energy budgets, controlling ice dynamics at the ice-bed interface by changing the basal temperature and the supply of meltwater. Despite the known influence of geothermal heat on the subglacial environment, its impact on glacial erosion has received little study. The geothermal heat flux in glaciated mountain ranges varies widely as a function of the tectonic setting. Therefore, if glacial erosion is sensitive to geothermal heat flux, the evolution of glaciated landscapes may depend upon tectonically-controlled geothermal gradients. We explore the impact of geothermal heat flux on the rates and spatial patterns of glacial erosion in mountain ranges using numerical models. We couple a sliding-dependent glacial erosion model with the Parallel Ice Sheet Model (PISM) to simulate the evolution of a synthetic glacial landscape. We find a robust tendency for increasing glacial erosion with increasing geothermal heat flux. The spatial pattern of erosion also varies with the magnitude of geothermal heat flux. At low geothermal heat flux, glacial erosion is consistently focused in major valleys. As geothermal heat flux increases, the area of significant glacial erosion expands into higher elevations and the rate of erosion increases. The location of maximum erosion migrates up-valley as geothermal heat flux increases, suggesting that glacial erosion tends to produce distinct landscapes as a function of geothermal heat flux. Our finding suggests that active mountain belts with high geothermal heat flux will express the glacial buzzsaw effect, in which high elevation topography is preferentially removed by glacial erosion. Glaciers at passive margins with low geothermal heat flux, in contrast, will tend to incise deep valleys at relatively low elevations. Previous work on the interaction between tectonics and landscape evolution has focused on relief generation and fracturing of rocks. Our results introduce a novel potential linkage between tectonics and erosion based on the sensitivity of glacial erosion to geothermal heat.